Track and field athletics 사설토토

Contents

1.Track and field

2.The field events

3.Rules and Scoring

4.History

Track and field, or athletics as it is called in many countries, is the designation given to contests for men and women that involve running, jumping for height and distance, and throwing for distance using implements of standardized design. Competitions in track and field are called meets and are usually held outdoors, with the running events taking place on a portion of or around a 400-m (437.2-yd) or 440-yd (402.3-m) oval made out of cinders, clay, or synthetic compounds.

The field events — those disciplines involving jumping and throwing — generally take place at the same time as the running events, on the area within the track's circumference, or nearby.

Meets are held indoors during the winter months on smaller ovals, which vary from 5 to 12 laps to the mile in size. Races of differing lengths from those held outdoors are often run, and several of the field events that require a large space are not held. Indoor tracks are generally made of wood and are often banked to offset the sharp turns of the smaller ovals.

Separate but related sports are often considered to be part of the track and field family. Cross-country is a fall and winter activity for distance runners, with races of 3.2 – 19.3 km (2 – 12 mi) being run over pastoral terrain — often golf courses in the United States and rugged farmland in other countries. Road running, especially of the marathon distance (26 mi 385 yd/42.2 km) is an increasingly popular activity, with races taking place over a measured course on city streets or country roads. Road races may be of any length, up to and beyond 160 km (99.4 mi). Long-distance walking events are usually held on road courses as well.

The outdoor track season is usually March to June in the United States and through September in Europe and Asia. The cross-country season is generally from September until early December in the United States, although in Europe meets are often held throughout the winter until the start of the outdoor track season. Indoor meets are held in the winter months, December through March. Road races are held throughout the year, regardless of weather conditions.

Rules and Scoring

All races are started by the firing of a gun by an official at the starting line. For races up to and including one lap of an outdoor track, the runners must stay for the entire distance within lanes marked on the track. There may be six to eight lanes, with each lane usually measuring 1.2 m (4 ft) in width. The winner in each race is the runner whose torso first breaks the vertical plane of the finish line. Races are timed either by mechanical watches or by more sophisticated, electronic photo-timers that can measure finishes to the hundredth of a second. Sometimes, owing to the number of contestants in a competition, qualifying rounds, or heats, are held to narrow the contestants down to the fastest runners.

Athletes in the field events also have qualifying rounds. In the horizontal jumps and throws athletes are allowed three preliminary attempts if the field numbers more than eight participants. Then the best performers are allowed three more attempts. In the vertical jumps the high jump — and pole vault — the participants are allowed to continue until they have three successive failures. If two or more contestants tie, the competitor with the fewest failures at the last height cleared is the winner; if still tied, the total number of failures is the deciding factor; if a tie remains, the total number of jumps is considered. Scoring differs according to the meet. Many national competitions are scored on the basis of 10 points for first place, 8 for second, on down to 1 point for sixth. In international meets, the scoring is 5 for first place, 3 for second, 2 for third, and 1 for fourth. The team with the highest total wins.

For road races, cross-country meets, and walking competitions, the winner is given 1 point, the second-place finisher 2 points, and so on; the finish positions are totaled, and the team with the lowest score is the winner.

History

Track and field is one of the oldest of sports. Athletic contests were often held in conjunction with religious festivals, as with the Olympic Games of ancient Greece. For 11 centuries, starting in 776 B.C., these affairs — for men only — were enormously popular and prestigious events. The Romans continued the Olympic tradition until the time of the Emperor Theodosius I, a Christian, who banned the Games in A.D. 394. During the Middle Ages, except for a short-lived revival in 12th-century England, organized track and field all but disappeared. The true development of track and field as a modern sport started in England during the 19th century. English public school and university students gave the sport impetus through their interclass meets, or meetings as they are still called in Britain, and in 1849 the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst held the first organized track and field meet of modern times.

Not until the 1860s, however, did the sport flourish. In 1866 the first English championships were held by the newly formed Amateur Athletic Club, which opened the competition to all "gentlemen amateurs" specifically, athletes who received no financial compensation for their efforts. This code has lasted to the present day and is the basis of the rules governing the sport. The Amateur Athletic Club gave way to the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880, which has conducted the annual national championships since that date. Although meets were held on the North American continent as early as 1839, track and field first gained popularity in the late 1860s, after the formation of the New York Athletic Club in 1868. The Amateur Athletic Union of the United States (AAU), an association of track and field clubs, was formed in 1887 and has governed the sport in the United States since then.

In 1896 the first modern Olympic Games were staged. Although initially of limited appeal, the Olympics captured the imagination of athletes and grew steadily, making track and field an international sport for the first time. In 1913 the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was formed by representatives from 16 countries. The IAAF was charged with establishing standard rules for the sport, approving world records, and ensuring that the amateur code was adhered to; it continues to carry out these duties today.

The participation of women in track and field is a relatively recent development. In 1921 representatives from six countries formed an athletic federation for women, which merged with the IAAF in 1936. Participation by women has grown rapidly in many countries in recent years, particularly in the United States, where many schools have added women's track and field to their athletic programs.   사설토토